Colonial Williamsburg Digital Library

Physical Description

The project area is located in Williamsburg, Virginia on a flat, grassy terrace which contained three Bayberry trees (Fig. 1). It is bounded to the east by North England Street, to the south by Scotland Street and to the north and west by slopes. The site is presently being used as pasture for cows and is fenced in to the east and south. Excavations were carried out within the fenced area and covered the entire terrace which measured 24 × 22 meters.

Environmental Setting

The Historic Area of the City of Williamsburg is situated along a drainage divide running east/west along the peninsula. The ravines cutting into the dividing ridge from the south eventually channel run-off water into the James River, whereas those on the north side of Duke of Gloucester Street direct the flow into the York River.

Various faunal species common in the area during the eighteenth century are still found in Williamsburg and its environs. White-tailed deer, which are rather prolific on the outskirts of town, are not found in the Historic Area. However, grey squirrels, raccoons, opossums, skunks, rabbits, mice and rats live peacefully within the town. Even occasional grey and red foxes are seen within the city limits. Birds common in the area include many types of water fowl, song birds, eagles, hawks and vultures. Snakes, land and river turtles, fish, shellfish and crabs are found in abundance in stream-side and marshland environments.

The climate of the Williamsburg area is fairly mild, due to its proximity to the Chesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. The average annual temperature is 59° Fahrenheit, with an average winter temperature is 38.9° Fahrenheit and the average summer temperature is 76.8° Fahrenheit. Extremes in temperature do occur, however, both in winter and in 2 Figure 1. Project area location. the summer. Fifteen degree temperatures in January and February are not uncommon, and readings in excess of 100° Fahrenheit in July are predictable. The average annual rainfall is 42.5 inches, with occasional snow.

Previous Archaeology

The project area was first excavated in 1947 when James Knight cross trenched that section of Block 34. The only thing Knight uncovered was a small, brick chimney base constructed out of salvaged bricks and bats, which measured 5'7¾" long and 3'7" wide (Fig. 2). Curiously, he did not mention the presence of mortar, suggesting the bricks were dry laid. No associated structure was found, leading Knight to speculate that it was a small wooden dwelling with ground laid sills (Knight 1947).

In February of 1985, monitoring of an electric line trench revealed the presence of intact stratigraphy but no features. A twentieth-century fill layer, which was related to a modern house that was on the lot, and a rubble layer were also discovered (Stull 1986).

Later in 1985, three test units and two shovel tests were excavated within the project area in anticipation of the construction of a bus turnaround. A late nineteenth or early twentieth-century well and associated well head were discovered at the northern end of the site. No other features were uncovered but a test unit located at the southern end of the site revealed the presence of a layer dating to the late eighteenth century (Alexandrowicz 1985).

Project Methods

The testing strategy for this project called for the systematic placement of 75 cm square test units at five meter intervals throughout the project area, insuring adequate coverage 3 Figure 2. Chimney base uncovered in 1947. (Fig. 3). In addition to identifying structures and activity areas, this approach allowed for the retrieval of a representative sample of artifacts, the accurate recording of stratigraphy and a tentative assessment of subsurface features.

Each test unit was excavated stratigraphically through shovel stripping and hand troweling. Stratigraphic layers were determined through differences in soil color and texture. All soil removed from test units was sifted through .25-inch steel screen. Artifacts were collected and labeled according to unit and layer. Each test unit was excavated to sterile clay subsoil.

A context number was assigned to each layer and feature during the investigation and an Archaeological Context Record was completed for each of the assigned contexts. Information concerning artifacts, soil descriptions and the integrity of the archaeological remains was included on each form. Context records aid in the identification and analysis of layers, features and artifact concentrations. Stratigraphic profiles were recorded for each area. The location of the test units was recorded on detailed site plans.

All of the artifacts recovered during the investigation were sent to the lab at Department of Archaeological Research for processing and analysis. Artifacts were washed, sorted and labeled according to provenience. Each context was assigned a Terminus Post Quem (T.P.Q.) based on the artifact with the most recent date of manufacture. The T.P.Q. literally means the date after which, referring to the earliest possible date an archaeological layer or feature could have been deposited. Artifacts were inventoried using a standard descriptive typology. Obvious functional and morphological characteristics were 4 Figure 3. Location of test units. included in the inventory. Artifact distributions were plotted in the form of contour maps using Surfer, a statistical mapping program. All of the documentation, artifacts and faunal and floral remains recovered during this survey are stored at the Department of Archaeological Research.

European Settlement to Society (1607-1750)

The earliest known European settlement in the vicinity of the project area was during the third and fourth decades of the seventeenth century. In 1632 the House of Burgesses passed the "Act for Seating of the Middle Plantation" (Hening 1969) which called for the building of a palisade between the James and York Rivers, across what is today the City of Williamsburg. Two sections of this palisade were found between the project area and town, one during a Phase I survey of the proposed Second Street extension (Hunter et al. 1985) and another during the private survey of the Bruton Heights School property (Muraca et al. 1992). During the subsequent decades of the seventeenth century, the settlement of Middle Plantation grew in population and importance. By 1676 Middle Plantation was considered consequential enough for Nathaniel Bacon to launch his rebellion there (Goodwin 1959) and by 1693 important enough to be selected as the location for Virginia's first college, the College of William & Mary. By the time the General Assembly was seriously considering moving the capital there, Middle Plantation contained "a church, an ordinary, several stores, two mills, a smith's shop, a grammar school, and above all the Colledge" (reprinted in Anonymous 1930: 323-337).

In 1699 Theodorick Bland was ordered by the General Assembly to survey and layout the new town of Williamsburg at the existing settlement of Middle Plantation. The purpose of the survey was to establish the boundaries of a new capital city for Virginia. Along with the town, two ports were included in the plan, one at Archer's Hope Creek, later known as College Creek, connecting the new city to the James River, and another at Queen's Creek connecting the city to the York River and to Yorktown, a deep water port town established in 1691 that became Williamsburg's seaport.

Although Williamsburg was firmly established as the capital of the Virginia Colony during the first half of the eighteenth century, it remained small, with a permanent population of about 1500. As the capital, it grew enormously, if temporarily, twice yearly, during "Publick Times" when the General Assembly was in session. In spite of the growth of Williamsburg and Yorktown as commercial and cultural centers, the majority of the population remained rural throughout this period.

Colony to Nation (1750-1789)

By the mid-eighteenth century, Williamsburg had established itself as a viable and diverse community and cultural center, although it never rivaled New York, Boston, or Philadelphia because of the rural nature of Virginia's economy. During this period, Williamsburg had a continuously operating theatre, a college, the colonies' first asylum for the insane, a host of craft industries, and taverns. The population of the town still remained small, except during the great influx of people during the "Publick Times." Leaders in the move toward revolution, such as Peyton Randolph, Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington, were members of the General Assembly, lived in Williamsburg, or frequently 6 had reason to be there, making this period the most influential and exciting in Williamsburg's history.

Early National Period (1789-1830)

The effects of moving the capital from Williamsburg to Richmond became evident in the years following the revolution. Williamsburg, and the Tidewater in general, fell into economic decline as the population and influence centers moved westward. The surrounding counties continued their agrarian orientation and the rotation of wheat and corn crops (Rochefaucauld 1799). The short-live boom of wheat production declined sharply after the Revolutionary War came to an end. This was helped along by the ravages of insect and the poor quality of soil which resulted from over farming (Brown and Bragdon 1986).

Antebellum Period (1830-1860)

During this period, agriculture continued to be the predominant economic activity in the Williamsburg, James City, and York County area. Some improvement in the soil's ability to grow crops was initiated by Edmund Ruffin. Ruffin discovered that marl, a naturally-occurring outcrop of Miocene fossil shell, could be mixed with soil to mitigate its innate acidity, allowing better growing potential. Marl was an inexpensive and readily available commodity throughout the area. By 1840, wheat and corn production was up some 200% (Bruce 1932).

Industry in the mid-nineteenth century Williamsburg area included five dry goods stores, eight lumber yards, one tannery, two grist mills, a carriage manufactory, and a furniture shop. By 1860 there were fourteen mills in the area, 11 in James City and 3 in York County. (Brown and Bragdon 1986).

Williamsburg in 1835 consisted of 200 houses in addition to a new market house, 16 stores, a manufactory, four mills, three tan yards, and a saddler's shop. In 1855 a new courthouse and two Baptist Churches were under construction in the city (Carson 1961).

Also during the early nineteenth century several free black communities were established in the Williamsburg area. The most notable was Centerville, located in James City County, several miles northwest of the city. By 1850 nearly 400 free African Americans lived around Centerville, gainfully employed in agriculture and craft-related industries.

By the outbreak of the Civil War, the Williamsburg area was recovering from the economic set-backs of the late eighteenth century. Once again, both agriculturally and industrially, Virginia was becoming a viable entity in Tidewater.

Civil War (1861-1865)

Williamsburg again became a center of activity during the first half of the Civil War as an enemy-occupied town during the Peninsula Campaign. Although no known fortifications existed within a kilometer of the project area, Fort Magruder and associated earthworks are located about three kilometers (1.8 miles) to the south.

Reconstruction and Growth (1865-1917)

The James City, York County, Williamsburg area recovered slowly from the effects of the Civil War. Agriculture was still the basis of the economy, but the lack of slave labor change farming practices. A large population of free blacks remained in the area serving again as laborers on farms. While other parts of the country were experiencing a rise in industrialization, this area remain strongly agrarian. Large plantations were broken up into smaller farms, some owned by the slaves that once attended them (Brown and Bragdon 1986).

The advent of the railroad in 1881 as an efficient method of transporting both people and commodities began to help the area out of its economic slumber, but not until well into the twentieth century. Unfortunately, highways fell into disrepair, probably into a worse state than they were in during the first part of the eighteenth century. The steamship also saw its rise in this period with regular stops in West Point, Williamsburg, Newport News, and Norfolk.

It should also be noted that the early preservation movement that was to become so important to the Williamsburg area in the next period, began with activities centered around the tercentenary of the establishment of Jamestown. The Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities was founded in 1889 and the College of William & Mary was re-opened in 1888. President Roosevelt called national attention to Jamestown in 1907, the Reverand W.A.R. Goodwin restored Bruton Parish Church in 1907.

World War I to Present (1917-1996)

The Williamsburg area remained largely dependent economically on farming well into the twentieth century. In the late 1920s, new industries were established that would forever change the economic landscape of the Williamsburg area: historic preservation and tourism. The restoration of Virginia's second capital through the efforts of W.A.R. Goodwin and John D. Rockefeller succeeded in bringing the area out of its economic rut, causing a great deal of growth in a relatively short time. Within the last 30 years, the small farm has all but disappeared from the landscape, being replaced by shopping centers, outlet malls, and housing developments. Tourism has become the major source of income in the area. Other industries in the Williamsburg area include beer manufacturing, glass making, fibers, and a winery.

Lot 178 History

Lots 178-181 were conveyed by the Trustees of Williamsburg to Francis Tyler of York County for 3 pounds in 1717 (York County 1717:163-65). Three years later in 1720, Tyler conveyed the four lots including all "houses, edificies, buildings, yards, [and] Gardens" to Gawin Corbin of Middlesex County for 120 pounds (York County 1720:345). Corbin was a member of the House of Burgesses as well as Collector and Naval Officer for the Rappahannock District.

After Corbin's death in 1744, his house and lots in Williamsburg came into possession of his daughter Alice Corbin Neddler, whose husband Benjamin was clerk of the Council 8 Figure 4. 1782 Frenchman's Map showing possible location of stable. before his death in 1741. They appear to have been living in Williamsburg before Corbin's death since William Byrd noted in his diary that he visited them several times between 1739 and 1741 (Woodfin ed. 1942). This suggests that Corbin was living at his Laneville plantation in King and Queen County and that Alice and Benjamin were staying in Williamsburg.

According to the Virginia Gazette, by March 1745, Alice was living in King and Queen County, most likely at her late father's plantation. It is unclear exactly who owned the lots after this time period, but they possibly could have come into the hands of William Robinson, who it seems married Alice and Benjamin's daughter Elizabeth (Gibbs 1979). Robinson died around 1768, and at that time the lots may have been conveyed to Peyton Randolph. A 1783 deed mentions that lots 179-184 were conveyed to Peyton by William and Elizabeth Robinson of King and Queen County. Lot 178, however, was not mentioned with this group (Stephenson 1955).

A large rectangular building depicted on the 1782 Frenchman's Map was located on lot 179 (Fig. 4). This building was most likely a stable which was described in 1783 as being able to "hold twelve horses [with] room for two carriages with several acres of pasture ground" (Gibbs 1978, Section III, #28) . The acreage around the stable might have included lot 178 which it seems was used for pasture.

Lots 179-184 were sold to Joseph Hornsby in 1783 and around 1800 the lots, including 178, came into the possession of the Peachy family. Fourteen tracts including 178 are shown as belonging to them on the 1803 Bucktrout map (Fig. 5). The Peachy family retained possession of lot 178 until 1858. After that date various people came into ownership of it until 1938 when it was purchased by the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.

Figure 5. 1803 Bucktrout Map.

Interpretations

The discovery of a pier supported frame dwelling with a brick hearth is important, since such sites have heretofore been rare in Williamsburg. To date, only two other similar buildings have been examined in and around the town. The first was the home of Polly Valentine who was a slave and favorite nanny of the Tucker family. Between the 1840s and 1862/64, she and her husband Jim lived in a 15' × 25' frame dwelling supported by brick piers that the Tucker's constructed for them at the northern end of their Williamsburg property (Fig. 12). Not only did the Tucker's build a house for them, but it seems they also gave them some of their older ceramics to use. This has been inferred through the examination of two distinct groups of ceramics from the site. The first represented wares manufactured prior to the occupation of the site (1810-1840), which has been interpreted as hand-me-downs from the Tucker's. The second group was comprised of wares manufactured during the occupation of the site and represents wares acquired directly by the Valentine's (Edwards 1990).

Since Polly was favored by the Tucker's, she received special attention in the form of a small wooden house and hand-me-down ceramics. Thus, her pier supported frame house with brick hearth, was considered more than sufficient since the rest of the Tucker's slaves lived communally in the laundry outbuilding. In fact, almost all slaves in Williamsburg lived in outbuildings such as kitchens and laundries, which makes the Polly Valentine site truly unique.

The second site examined which was similar to the one discovered on lot 178, was site 44WB90. Located behind Colonial Williamsburg's Visitor Center, site 44WB90 is a domestic site dating to the second half of the eighteenth century. Phase II excavations uncovered part of a brick hearth laid in English bond with shell mortar, but no associated structure (Fig. 13). This dwelling was most likely constructed of wood and could have rested on posts, piers or directly on the ground. Since this area was part of the Palace Lands during the second half of the eighteenth century, the person or persons living there might have been tenants or slaves who farmed the land for the Governor. The types of Ceramics retrieved from this site, and there low density, were similar to what was found on lot 178. Creamwares, pearlwares, delftwares, stonewares, and Chinese porcelains were present, but in such low numbers as to suggest the presence of household of little means (Cooper 1997).

It is uncertain who was occupying the building discovered on lot 178, but it might have been either poor white tenants or slaves. During the latter part of the eighteenth century, the property might have been owned by Peyton Randolph, who it seems had a large stable located on an adjacent lot. The person or persons living in the small wooden dwelling on lot 178, therefore, might have been responsible for taking care of Peyton's horses and carriages.

Figure 12. Plan view of Polly Valentine site.

Figure 13. Plan view of brick hearth at site 44WB90.

Figure 14. Area to avoid.

The difference between a poor white tenant's house and that of a slave's is often hard to delineate. Dell Upton (1990:71) states that "the houses of both slaves and poor whites were spatially and structurally similar." They both tended to be small wooden dwellings one room deep and one or two rooms long. For example, the original portion of Perkinsons, a surviving late eighteenth-century small, white planter's dwelling in Chesterfield County, Virginia, measures only 12' × 14'. Examples of extant slave housing, and those revealed in documents, demonstrate that they could range in size anywhere from 18' × 18' to 12' × 8' (Upton 1990). Thus, only full excavations and/or documentation, as in the case of the Polly Valentine site, can sometimes determine if the residents of a particular site were poor and free or enslaved.